Exam Study Guide + Updated PDF References

This study guide references each major topic to the [PAGE=XX] anchor in your updated DONAHUE – ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY PDF, and also incorporates supplementary textbook points (Chapters 1–5). Please note that your cross-referencing to [PAGE=XX] remains unchanged for your notes file. The textbook links are provided for additional context.

Lesson 1

1. Four Main Theories of Psychotherapy (Psychodynamic, Behavioral, Cognitive, Humanistic)

   These are the core theoretical orientations guiding therapeutic interventions. Psychodynamic emphasizes the unconscious and insight into childhood patterns; Behavioral targets observable actions and habit changes; Cognitive focuses on irrational thinking or “inner dialogue”; and Humanistic uses empathy and validation to foster self-growth.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=9]

2. 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act

   Signed by JFK to encourage community-based treatment rather than long-term institutionalization. Although well-intended, it increased homelessness among the mentally ill, as many patients were abandoned or lacked support.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=16]

3. Moral Treatment of Individuals with Psychopathology

   Introduced by Philippe Pinel, this movement highlighted humane, individualized care, including exercise, recreation, and occupational therapy—an early step away from inhumane conditions.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=15]

4. Changes in American Mental Asylums

   Initially grounded in moral therapy, asylums became overcrowded “warehouses.” The 1963 Community Mental Health Centers Act aimed to address these conditions but inadvertently led to widespread homelessness.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=15–16]

5. 4D Criteria for Determining Psychopathology

   Distress (emotional or physical suffering), Deviance (atypical behaviors/thoughts), Dysfunction (impairment in daily life), and Dangerousness (risk of harm to self/others) together shape the concept of “abnormality.”

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=12]

6. Stages of Change Model (Precontemplation → Termination)

   Individuals typically move through six stages in pursuit of change: Precontemplation, Contemplation, Preparation, Action, Maintenance, and Termination (though addiction often remains at Maintenance indefinitely).

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=11]

7. Biological Viewpoint of Mental Disorders

   Emphasizes genetic, neurological, or physiological underpinnings for psychopathology. Often explored through neuroscience, psychopharmacology, and twin/adoption studies.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=16]

8. Greater Emphasis on Multicultural/Career Issues (Counseling Psychology)

   Counseling Psych. focuses on cultural diversity, vocational guidance, and developmental transitions—somewhat distinct from Clinical Psych’s greater focus on severe mental illness.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=8]

9. General Proportions of Mental Health Providers

   Studies show ~37% Counselors, ~29% Social Workers, ~16% Psychologists, ~9% Psychiatrists, ~7% MFTs, ~2% other. Demonstrates the diversity of mental health professionals.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=8]

10. Definitions: Incidence, Prevalence, Lifetime Prevalence

    Incidence = number of new cases per time period, Prevalence = total existing cases at a given time, Lifetime Prevalence = proportion of population with the disorder at any point in life.

    PDF Reference: [PAGE=14]

11. Definitions: Abnormal Psychology, Psychopathology, Psychotherapy

    Abnormal Psychology = scientific study of unusual behaviors, Psychopathology = study of mental disorder symptoms & causes, Psychotherapy = systematic intervention to change thoughts/behavior/emotions.

    PDF Reference: [PAGE=7]

12. What is abnormal psychology?

    Abnormal psychology is the study of the symptoms and causes of behavioral and mental disorders; the objectives are to describe, explain, predict, and modify distressing emotions and behaviors.

    Textbook Chapter 1

13. How do we differentiate between normal and abnormal behaviors?

    Four criteria have traditionally been used to determine and define abnormality: distress, deviance, dysfunction, and dangerousness.

    Textbook Chapter 1

14. How common are mental disorders?

    Over the course of a year, approximately one quarter of young adults in the United States experience a mental disorder. In a study of college students in eight countries, over one third met the criteria for a mental disorder at some point in their lives.

    Textbook Chapter 1

15. What societal factors affect definitions of abnormality?

    Cultural context and sociopolitical factors can influence definitions of abnormality. Criteria must be considered in light of community standards, changing times, cultural values, and sociopolitical experiences.

    Textbook Chapter 1

16. Why is it important to confront stigmatization and stereotyping?

    Stigma often arises from misinformation (e.g., linking mental illness to violence). Negative societal attitudes can produce discrimination and prevent individuals from seeking treatment. A “code of silence” allows damaging stereotypes to persist.

    Textbook Chapter 1

17. How have explanations of abnormal behavior changed over time?

    Ancient peoples used demonology; Greco-Roman thinkers like Hippocrates emphasized biological causes. The Middle Ages saw a resurgence of supernatural beliefs; the 14th–16th centuries renewed interest in rational, humanistic approaches.

    Textbook Chapter 1

18. What were early explanations regarding the causes of mental disorders?

    In the 19th and 20th centuries, discoveries such as the organism causing general paresis renewed belief in biological roots of mental illness. The role of psychological processes (e.g., via hypnosis and hysteria) also gained traction.

    Textbook Chapter 1

19. What are some contemporary trends in abnormal psychology?

    Multicultural psychology, positive psychology, the recovery movement, managed care, evidence-based practice, and technological advances all influence current approaches to mental health.

    Textbook Chapter 1

Lesson 2

1. Limits to Confidentiality in the Client-Therapist Relationship

   Therapists must keep disclosures private unless certain legal/ethical exceptions apply, such as threats of harm, child/elder abuse, or court orders. Confidentiality is a core principle of the therapeutic alliance.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=21–23]

2. Tarasoff Ruling & 3 Criteria for Duty to Warn

   1. Expressed intent to harm
   2. Means to carry it out
   3. Identified victim

   The Tarasoff case established that mental health professionals must breach confidentiality to protect identifiable individuals if a credible threat is disclosed.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=21–22]

3. Confidentiality, Privileged Communication, & Informed Consent

   Confidentiality = ethical duty to keep client info private; Privileged Communication = legal protection restricting forced disclosure; Informed Consent = clients must understand treatment risks/benefits & agree voluntarily.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=21–23]

4. Criteria for Civil Commitment

   Generally requires evidence of potential harm to self/others or inability to meet basic needs. Legal standards vary by jurisdiction but revolve around protecting the individual and the public.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=21–23]

5. School Shootings Data / Youth Violence

   Highlights from FBI data (2008) show no single profile: risk factors vary, but many youths with risk factors do not commit violent acts. Media often perpetuates myths that oversimplify causes.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=23]

6. Five Main Ethical Principles (APA)

   Although not explicitly listed in the PDF, the key APA principles include: Beneficence, Nonmaleficence, Autonomy, Justice, and Fidelity/Integrity.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=21–23]

7. What models of psychopathology have been used to explain abnormal behavior?

   Traditional one-dimensional models are inadequate, as most mental disorders arise from multidimensional influences.

   Textbook Chapter 2

8. What is the multipath model of mental disorders?

   The multipath model provides a framework that examines biological, psychological, social, and sociocultural influences and their interactions. It views disorders from a holistic vantage point.

   Textbook Chapter 2

9. How is biology involved in mental disorders?

   Genetics, neurotransmitter imbalances, brain structures, and autonomic reactivity often factor into mental disorders. Research also examines epigenetic influences that turn genes on/off.

   Textbook Chapter 2

10. How do psychological models explain mental disorders?

    Psychodynamic stresses childhood experiences & the unconscious; Behavioral highlights learning via conditioning/modeling; Cognitive focuses on distorted thinking; Humanistic-Existential emphasizes free will & personal growth.

    Textbook Chapter 2

11. What role do social factors play in psychopathology?

    Poor-quality social relationships or distorted family communication can heighten vulnerability to disorders. Family systems views abnormality as arising from unhealthy family dynamics.

    Textbook Chapter 2

12. What sociocultural factors influence mental health?

    Variables like race, ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and sexual orientation can shape the manifestation and course of mental disorders.

    Textbook Chapter 2

13. Why is it important to consider mental disorders from a multipath perspective?

    Focusing on a single perspective can overlook essential elements. Most disorders result from complex interactions among biological, psychological, social, and sociocultural domains.

    Textbook Chapter 2

Lesson 3

1. Cultural Competence (Three Goals for Culturally Appropriate Treatment)

   Involves recognizing potential biases, adapting interventions to clients’ cultural contexts, and continually learning about diverse backgrounds. Note: Not explicitly labeled in the PDF, but commonly tied to “Additional Concepts.”

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=16]

2. Three Main Purposes of Diagnosis

   1. Organize client data and clinical impressions
   2. Guide intervention planning
   3. Provide a common language across professionals

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=34]

3. Subtype, Specifier, Principal Diagnosis, Provisional, Unspecified/Other

   Subtypes define mutually exclusive variants, Specifiers add descriptive detail, Principal Diagnosis is the primary focus of treatment, Provisional means criteria appear likely but not fully confirmed, Unspecified/Other used when a diagnosis only partially fits or lacks complete info.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=34–36]

4. Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory (MCMI)

   A clinical assessment tool emphasizing personality disorders. High scores (e.g., >75) may indicate clinically significant traits in areas like borderline, antisocial, narcissistic, etc.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=31]

5. NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae)

   A sub-clinical personality measure assessing the Big Five: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Often used in personal, career, or research contexts.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=31]

6. MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)

   Considered the gold standard for detecting severe psychopathology. Incorporates validity scales to detect “faking good” or “faking bad,” ensuring robust profile interpretation.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=29]

7. Rorschach Test (Exner’s Scoring System)

   A projective inkblot test aimed at uncovering unconscious conflicts/themes. Exner’s standardized approach improved reliability, though it remains more interpretive than strictly diagnostic.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=27]

8. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

   Uses 10–15 ambiguous picture cards prompting clients to tell a story, including emotional states and outcomes. Offers insight into themes or conflicts relevant to the client’s life.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=28]

9. Differences Between Validity & Reliability

   Reliability = consistency of measurement, Validity = accuracy (measures what it intends to). High reliability doesn’t guarantee high validity—but both are essential.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=26]

10. Z Codes (How Used in Diagnosis)

    Used for psychosocial or environmental stressors (e.g., housing problems, relational conflicts) that may affect diagnosis, treatment, or prognosis. Not a “mental disorder” but a contextual factor.

    PDF Reference: [PAGE=36]

11. How do we know if psychological tests and evaluation procedures are accurate?

    Reliability (consistency) and validity (accuracy) are key. Reliability ensures consistent results, while validity confirms that the test measures what it’s intended to.

    Textbook Chapter 3

12. How do mental health professionals evaluate a client’s mental health?

    Four primary methods: observations, interviews, psychological tests/inventories, and neurological tests. The mental status exam is also a common interview tool during assessment.

    Textbook Chapter 3

13. How do professionals make a psychiatric diagnosis?

    Clinicians gather all available info, evaluate symptom patterns, and reference detailed diagnostic criteria (e.g., DSM-5). Though primarily categorical, DSM-5 also includes dimensional measures and cultural considerations.

    Textbook Chapter 3

14. What changes are occurring in the field of psychological assessment?

    There’s increasing emphasis on biologically based data (NIMH’s stance) and comprehensive models integrating biological, psychological, social, and sociocultural factors. Potential biases of assessors are also highlighted.

    Textbook Chapter 3

Lessons 4 & 5

1. Four Categories of Anxiety Symptoms (Physical, Cognitive, Emotional, Behavioral)

   Somatic (e.g., muscle tension, increased heart rate), cognitive (worrying, racing thoughts), emotional (fear, dread), and behavioral (avoidance, restlessness).

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=41]

2. Etiological Factors of Anxiety Disorders

   Factors may include genetic predisposition, negative appraisal styles, childhood adversity, poverty, and gender differences. No single cause is definitive.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=41–42]

3. Panic Attacks (DSM-5 Criteria & Prevalence)

   Sudden onset of intense fear or discomfort with physical symptoms (e.g., palpitations, shortness of breath). Prevalence varies, but many experience at least one panic attack in their lifetime.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=42–44]

4. Social Anxiety Disorder (Diagnostic Criteria)

   Marked fear or anxiety about social situations due to fear of scrutiny, rejection, or embarrassment. Often leads to avoidance of social or performance contexts.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=45]

5. Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Criteria

   Excessive worry across multiple domains, difficulty controlling the worry, and associated symptoms (e.g., restlessness, fatigue) for 6+ months.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=44]

6. Panic Disorder (Diagnostic Criteria)

   Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks coupled with persistent concern about additional attacks or maladaptive changes in behavior to avoid them.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=51]

7. Specific Phobia (Diagnostic Criteria)

   Intense, disproportionate fear triggered by a specific object or situation (e.g., spiders, heights, flying), causing avoidance or extreme distress.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=46]

8. Differences Between Specific Phobia Categories

   Common subtypes include Animal, Natural Environment, Blood-Injection-Injury, Situational, and Other. Each involves distinct triggers but shares core features of fear and avoidance.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=46–47]

9. Cognitive Restructuring vs. Modeling Therapy vs. Systematic Desensitization

   Cognitive Restructuring targets irrational fears through challenging thoughts; Modeling Therapy demonstrates adaptive behavior (e.g., watching another handle the feared stimulus calmly); Systematic Desensitization uses gradual exposure coupled with relaxation techniques.

   PDF Reference: [PAGE=47]

10. Hoarding Disorder (Diagnostic Criteria)

    Persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, severe clutter that obstructs living areas, and significant distress/impairment in functioning.

    PDF Reference: [PAGE=61]

11. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (Criteria & Rates)

    Characterized by obsessions (intrusive, unwanted thoughts) and/or compulsions (repetitive behaviors). Roughly 80% of individuals with OCD experience both obsessions and compulsions.

    PDF Reference: [PAGE=59]

12. What methods do researchers use to study causes and treatments of psychopathology?

    The scientific method involves systematic observation, hypothesis testing, operational definitions, reliability/validity checks, and evaluating statistical significance. Experiments, correlational studies, analogue studies, field studies, case studies, and single-participant designs each offer distinct advantages and limitations.

    Textbook Chapter 4

13. How does biological research help us understand abnormal behavior?

    Genetic and epigenetic studies (e.g., twin comparisons, endophenotypes, genetic linkage) help pinpoint heritable traits. Biological research can reveal biomarkers that predict or influence mental disorders.

    Textbook Chapter 4

14. What is epidemiological research and what does it tell us about mental illness?

    Epidemiological studies examine rates and distribution of mental disorders in populations, identifying who’s at risk and how issues develop. Prevalence includes existing cases, incidence reflects new cases.

    Textbook Chapter 4

15. What are current trends in research into psychopathology?

    Meta-analysis synthesizes multiple studies’ results. Evidence-based practice ensures treatments are research-backed. Efforts continue to reduce bias and integrate biomarkers for early intervention.

    Textbook Chapter 4

16. According to the multipath model, how do biological, psychological, social, and sociocultural factors affect anxiety disorders?

    Genetic predisposition (e.g., overactive fear circuitry) can be offset by supportive environments. Sociocultural factors (discrimination, poverty) add risk, but personal traits (sense of control) can mitigate anxiety.

    Textbook Chapter 5

17. What are phobias, their causes, and treatments?

    Phobias are strong, irrational fears (social anxiety, agoraphobia, or specific phobias). Biological theories cite genetic and neurological factors; psychological models consider classical conditioning or observational learning. Treatments often involve exposure therapies and sometimes medications.

    Textbook Chapter 5

18. What is panic disorder, its causes, and interventions?

    Panic disorder involves recurrent panic attacks with a sense of impending doom. Biological factors (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters), psychological factors (catastrophic thinking), and social or cultural stressors all play a role. Treatments include medications and cognitive-behavioral therapy to reframe anxious thoughts.

    Textbook Chapter 5

19. What is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), its causes, and treatment?

    GAD involves chronic, excessive worry in multiple areas. Overactivity in anxiety-related brain regions is implicated; social stressors (e.g., discrimination) can intensify worry. Antidepressants and CBT are common treatments.

    Textbook Chapter 5

20. What are obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, their causes, and treatments?

    OCD involves obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors). Biological factors include orbitofrontal cortex hyperactivity; psychological models cite anxiety-reduction processes. Related disorders include body dysmorphic disorder, trichotillomania, excoriation, and hoarding. SSRIs and CBT are common treatments.

    Textbook Chapter 5

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Final Notes

Your main cross-references ([PAGE=XX]) remain tied to DONAHUE – ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY in PDF. Any new textbook bullet points are labeled “Textbook Chapter X” with links provided. Should pagination change in your primary PDF, re-check or update anchors accordingly. Keep studying, and good luck on your exam!